Egypt

Egypt occupies the northeastern corner of Africa and the Sinai Peninsula of Asia, bordering Libya, Sudan, Israel, and the Gaza Strip. The modern state traces its origins to the overthrow of the Egyptian monarchy on July 23, 1952, by the Free Officers Movement under General Muhammad Naguib and Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser. Nasser assumed power in 1954 and became the dominant figure of Arab nationalism and anti-colonialism until his death in 1970.¹

Nasser Era and the Suez Crisis

Egypt under Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal on July 26, 1956, precipitating the Suez Crisis in which Britain, France, and Israel invaded. The United States and Soviet Union both pressured the invaders to withdraw, a rare moment of superpower alignment that established Egypt's strategic importance as a Cold War pivot. Nasser subsequently deepened ties with the Soviet Union, receiving substantial military and economic assistance that reshaped the Egyptian armed forces with Soviet equipment and advisers.

The 1967 Six-Day War was a catastrophic military defeat for Egypt: Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula and closed the Suez Canal. The Yom Kippur War of October 1973 opened with an Egyptian surprise crossing of the Suez Canal under General Saad el-Shazly, catching Israeli defenders unprepared. The CIA's failure to predict the attack was examined in subsequent assessments; partial intelligence had been dismissed or discounted. The war ended with an Israeli counteroffensive that encircled the Egyptian Third Army; U.S. pressure led to disengagement agreements.²

Sadat and Camp David

Nasser died on September 28, 1970, and was succeeded by Vice President Anwar Sadat. Sadat expelled Soviet military advisers in 1972 and pivoted toward the United States. Following the 1973 war, Henry Kissinger conducted "shuttle diplomacy" that produced Egyptian-Israeli disengagement agreements in January 1974 and September 1975. Sadat's dramatic visit to Jerusalem on November 19-20, 1977, began the negotiation process that led to the Camp David summit of September 5-17, 1978, brokered by President Jimmy Carter. The resulting frameworks led to the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty of March 26, 1979, the first peace agreement between Israel and an Arab state.

Saudi intelligence chief Kamal Adham served as an intermediary in back-channel communications between Egypt and Israel prior to Camp David. The CIA maintained close ties to Egyptian intelligence services throughout the period. Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin received the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1978. Sadat was assassinated by Islamic Jihad members on October 6, 1981, during a military parade commemorating the 1973 war.¹

Mubarak Era and CIA Partnership

Sadat's successor Hosni Mubarak, who governed Egypt from 1981 to 2011, maintained Egypt's strategic alignment with the United States and its peace treaty with Israel. Egyptian General Intelligence Service cooperated extensively with the Central Intelligence Agency, including in the extraordinary rendition program of the post-September 11 period in which terrorism suspects were transferred to Egyptian custody for interrogation. Egypt under Mubarak was among the most significant recipients of U.S. foreign and military assistance, receiving approximately $1.3 billion annually in military aid.²

Mubarak was overthrown during the Arab Spring uprising of January-February 2011 and sentenced to life in prison in 2012. He died on February 25, 2020.