Fascism emerged as a political ideology that found expression in both American and European contexts examined in the text. In the United States, fascist sympathizers attempted to subvert democratic institutions during the 1930s. In 1933 the DuPont family was involved in what became known as the [[Business Plot]], a conspiracy to replace the presidency of [[Franklin Roosevelt]] with a fascist dictatorship. The plot represented an attempt by industrial and financial elites to install an authoritarian regime responsive to corporate interests rather than electoral accountability.[^1] In November 1934, Major General [[Smedley Butler]] informed Congress that he had been approached by Grayson Murphy, a director from the Guaranty Trust Company, to lead a paramilitary group formed from U.S. military veterans. This group was intended to back a plot to install [[Hugh S. Johnson]], then head of the National Recovery Administration, as dictator of the United States. The conspiracy revealed the depth of fascist sentiment within segments of the American business and military establishment during the interwar period.[^1] In Italy, fascism found expression through more overtly militant organizations. Prince [[Junio Valerio Borghese]], known as the Black Prince, led a fascist movement that attempted to subvert Italian democracy. Borghese had commanded the Decima Flottiglia MAS, a naval regiment that served Nazi Germany during World War II. After the war, he continued to promote fascist ideology and established connections with international far-right networks. His movement attempted a coup in 1970, an event known as the [[Golpe Borghese]], which sought to install an authoritarian government with the support of elements within the military and intelligence services.[^1] The fascist networks in Italy maintained connections to broader international conspiracies. [[Licio Gelli]] led Propaganda 2, a Masonic lodge that functioned as a secret society for fascist sympathizers. The lodge included prominent figures from business, politics, and the military, including businessman [[Alessandro Moncini]] and eventually Prime Minister [[Silvio Berlusconi]]. These networks were linked to Operation Gladio, a NATO stay-behind network established during the Cold War to resist potential Soviet invasion. The stay-behind networks were later implicated in domestic terrorism and political manipulation, with fascist elements using the infrastructure for their own purposes.[^1] The text connects these fascist networks to the broader themes of institutional corruption and the subversion of democratic accountability. Whether through corporate-backed coup attempts in the United States or military-intelligence conspiracies in Italy, fascism represented a recurring threat to democratic governance that found willing collaborators among elites who preferred authoritarian control to popular sovereignty.[^1] ### Footnotes [^1]: Dovey, S. (2023). Eye of the Chickenhawk. United States: Thehotstar.